# Python — ~45 seconds for 10 million iterations
import time

def fibonacci(n: int) -> int:
    if n <= 1:
        return n
    a, b = 0, 1
    for _ in range(2, n + 1):
        a, b = b, a + b
    return b

start = time.perf_counter()
results = [fibonacci(i) for i in range(10_000_000)]
elapsed = time.perf_counter() - start
print(f"Elapsed: {elapsed:.2f}s")  # ~45s on typical hardware

// Rust — ~0.3 seconds for the same 10 million iterations
use std::time::Instant;

fn fibonacci(n: u64) -> u64 {
    if n <= 1 {
        return n;
    }
    let (mut a, mut b) = (0u64, 1u64);
    for _ in 2..=n {
        let temp = b;
        b = a.wrapping_add(b);
        a = temp;
    }
    b
}

fn main() {
    let start = Instant::now();
    let results: Vec<u64> = (0..10_000_000).map(fibonacci).collect();
    println!("Elapsed: {:.2?}", start.elapsed());  // ~0.3s
}

# Python — circular reference that CPython's ref counter can't free
class Node:
    def __init__(self, value):
        self.value = value
        self.parent = None
        self.children = []

    def add_child(self, child):
        self.children.append(child)
        child.parent = self  # Circular reference!

# These two nodes reference each other — ref count never reaches 0.
# CPython's cycle detector will *eventually* clean them up,
# but you can't control when, and it adds GC pause overhead.
root = Node("root")
child = Node("child")
root.add_child(child)

// Rust — ownership prevents circular references by design
struct Node {
    value: String,
    children: Vec<Node>,  // Children are OWNED — no cycles possible
}

impl Node {
    fn new(value: &str) -> Self {
        Node {
            value: value.to_string(),
            children: Vec::new(),
        }
    }

    fn add_child(&mut self, child: Node) {
        self.children.push(child);  // Ownership transfers here
    }
}

fn main() {
    let mut root = Node::new("root");
    let child = Node::new("child");
    root.add_child(child);
    // When root is dropped, all children are dropped too.
    // Deterministic, zero overhead, no GC.
}

# Python — type hints are suggestions, not rules
def process_user(user_id: int, name: str) -> dict:
    return {"id": user_id, "name": name.upper()}

# These all "work" at the call site — fail at runtime
process_user("not-a-number", 42)        # TypeError at .upper()
process_user(None, "Alice")             # Works until you use user_id as int

# Even with mypy, you can still bypass types:
data = json.loads('{"id": "oops"}')     # Always returns Any
process_user(data["id"], data["name"])  # mypy can't catch this

// Rust — the compiler catches all of these before the program runs
fn process_user(user_id: i64, name: &str) -> User {
    User {
        id: user_id,
        name: name.to_uppercase(),
    }
}

// process_user("not-a-number", 42);     // ❌ Compile error: expected i64, found &str
// process_user(None, "Alice");           // ❌ Compile error: expected i64, found Option
// Extra arguments are always a compile error.

// Deserializing JSON is type-safe too:
#[derive(Deserialize)]
struct UserInput {
    id: i64,     // Must be a number in the JSON
    name: String, // Must be a string in the JSON
}
let input: UserInput = serde_json::from_str(json_str)?; // Returns Err if types mismatch
process_user(input.id, &input.name); // ✅ Guaranteed correct types

# Python — None sneaks in everywhere
def find_user(user_id: int) -> dict | None:
    users = {1: {"name": "Alice"}, 2: {"name": "Bob"}}
    return users.get(user_id)

user = find_user(999)         # Returns None
print(user["name"])           # 💥 TypeError: 'NoneType' object is not subscriptable

# Even with Optional type hint, nothing enforces the check:
from typing import Optional
def get_name(user_id: int) -> Optional[str]:
    return None

name: Optional[str] = get_name(1)
print(name.upper())          # 💥 AttributeError — mypy warns, runtime doesn't care

// Rust — None is impossible unless explicitly handled
fn find_user(user_id: i64) -> Option<User> {
    let users = HashMap::from([
        (1, User { name: "Alice".into() }),
        (2, User { name: "Bob".into() }),
    ]);
    users.get(&user_id).cloned()
}

let user = find_user(999);  // Returns None variant of Option<User>
// println!("{}", user.name);  // ❌ Compile error: Option<User> has no field `name`

// You MUST handle the None case:
match find_user(999) {
    Some(user) => println!("{}", user.name),
    None => println!("User not found"),
}

// Or use combinators:
let name = find_user(999)
    .map(|u| u.name)
    .unwrap_or_else(|| "Unknown".to_string());

# Python — threads DON'T speed up CPU work because of the GIL
import threading
import time

def cpu_work(n):
    total = 0
    for i in range(n):
        total += i * i
    return total

start = time.perf_counter()
threads = [threading.Thread(target=cpu_work, args=(10_000_000,)) for _ in range(4)]
for t in threads:
    t.start()
for t in threads:
    t.join()
elapsed = time.perf_counter() - start
print(f"4 threads: {elapsed:.2f}s")  # About the SAME as 1 thread! GIL prevents parallelism.

# multiprocessing "works" but serializes data between processes:
from multiprocessing import Pool
with Pool(4) as p:
    results = p.map(cpu_work, [10_000_000] * 4)  # ~4x faster, but pickle overhead

// Rust — true parallelism, no GIL, no serialization overhead
use std::thread;

fn cpu_work(n: u64) -> u64 {
    (0..n).map(|i| i * i).sum()
}

fn main() {
    let start = std::time::Instant::now();
    let handles: Vec<_> = (0..4)
        .map(|_| thread::spawn(|| cpu_work(10_000_000)))
        .collect();

    let results: Vec<u64> = handles.into_iter()
        .map(|h| h.join().unwrap())
        .collect();

    println!("4 threads: {:.2?}", start.elapsed());  // ~4x faster than single thread
}

# Python deployment checklist:
# 1. Which Python version? 3.9? 3.10? 3.11? 3.12?
# 2. Virtual environment: venv, conda, poetry, pipenv?
# 3. C extensions: need compiler? manylinux wheels?
# 4. System dependencies: libssl, libffi, etc.?
# 5. Docker: full python:3.12 image is 1.0 GB
# 6. Startup time: 200-500ms for import-heavy apps

# Docker image: ~1 GB
# FROM python:3.12-slim
# COPY requirements.txt .
# RUN pip install -r requirements.txt
# COPY . .
# CMD ["python", "app.py"]

// Rust deployment: single static binary, no runtime needed
// cargo build --release → one binary, ~5-20 MB
// Copy it anywhere — no Python, no venv, no dependencies

// Docker image: ~5 MB (from scratch or distroless)
// FROM scratch
// COPY target/release/my_app /my_app
// CMD ["/my_app"]

// Startup time: <1ms
// Cross-compile: cargo build --target x86_64-unknown-linux-musl

graph LR
    subgraph PY["🐍 Python"]
        direction TB
        PY_CODE["Your Code"] --> PY_INTERP["Interpreter — CPython VM"]
        PY_INTERP --> PY_GC["Garbage Collector — ref count + GC"]
        PY_GC --> PY_GIL["GIL — no true parallelism"]
        PY_GIL --> PY_OS["OS / Hardware"]
    end

    subgraph RS["🦀 Rust"]
        direction TB
        RS_CODE["Your Code"] --> RS_NONE["No runtime overhead"]
        RS_NONE --> RS_OWN["Ownership — compile-time, zero-cost"]
        RS_OWN --> RS_THR["Native threads — true parallelism"]
        RS_THR --> RS_OS["OS / Hardware"]
    end

    style PY_INTERP fill:#fff3e0,color:#000,stroke:#e65100
    style PY_GC fill:#fff3e0,color:#000,stroke:#e65100
    style PY_GIL fill:#ffcdd2,color:#000,stroke:#c62828
    style RS_NONE fill:#c8e6c9,color:#000,stroke:#2e7d32
    style RS_OWN fill:#c8e6c9,color:#000,stroke:#2e7d32
    style RS_THR fill:#c8e6c9,color:#000,stroke:#2e7d32