5. The State Machine Reveal 🟢

What you'll learn:

How the compiler transforms async fn into an enum state machine

Side-by-side comparison: source code vs generated states

Why large stack allocations in async fn blow up future sizes

The drop optimization: values drop as soon as they're no longer needed

What the Compiler Actually Generates

When you write async fn, the compiler transforms your sequential-looking code into an enum-based state machine. Understanding this transformation is the key to understanding async Rust's performance characteristics and many of its quirks.

Side-by-Side: async fn vs State Machine

// What you write:
async fn fetch_two_pages() -> String {
    let page1 = http_get("https://example.com/a").await;
    let page2 = http_get("https://example.com/b").await;
    format!("{page1}\n{page2}")
}

The compiler generates something conceptually like this:

enum FetchTwoPagesStateMachine {
    // State 0: About to call http_get for page1
    Start,

    // State 1: Waiting for page1, holding the future
    WaitingPage1 {
        fut1: HttpGetFuture,
    },

    // State 2: Got page1, waiting for page2
    WaitingPage2 {
        page1: String,
        fut2: HttpGetFuture,
    },

    // Terminal state
    Complete,
}

impl Future for FetchTwoPagesStateMachine {
    type Output = String;

    fn poll(mut self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<String> {
        loop {
            match self.as_mut().get_mut() {
                Self::Start => {
                    let fut1 = http_get("https://example.com/a");
                    *self.as_mut().get_mut() = Self::WaitingPage1 { fut1 };
                }
                Self::WaitingPage1 { fut1 } => {
                    let page1 = match Pin::new(fut1).poll(cx) {
                        Poll::Ready(v) => v,
                        Poll::Pending => return Poll::Pending,
                    };
                    let fut2 = http_get("https://example.com/b");
                    *self.as_mut().get_mut() = Self::WaitingPage2 { page1, fut2 };
                }
                Self::WaitingPage2 { page1, fut2 } => {
                    let page2 = match Pin::new(fut2).poll(cx) {
                        Poll::Ready(v) => v,
                        Poll::Pending => return Poll::Pending,
                    };
                    let result = format!("{page1}\n{page2}");
                    *self.as_mut().get_mut() = Self::Complete;
                    return Poll::Ready(result);
                }
                Self::Complete => panic!("polled after completion"),
            }
        }
    }
}

Note: This desugaring is conceptual. The real compiler output uses unsafe pin projections — the get_mut() calls shown here require Unpin, but async state machines are !Unpin. The goal is to illustrate state transitions, not produce compilable code.

stateDiagram-v2
    [*] --> Start
    Start --> WaitingPage1: Create http_get future #1
    WaitingPage1 --> WaitingPage1: poll() → Pending
    WaitingPage1 --> WaitingPage2: poll() → Ready(page1)
    WaitingPage2 --> WaitingPage2: poll() → Pending
    WaitingPage2 --> Complete: poll() → Ready(page2)
    Complete --> [*]: Return format!("{page1}\\n{page2}")

State contents:

WaitingPage1 — stores fut1: HttpGetFuture (page2 not yet allocated)

WaitingPage2 — stores page1: String, fut2: HttpGetFuture (fut1 has been dropped)

Why This Matters for Performance

Zero-cost: The state machine is a stack-allocated enum. No heap allocation per future, no garbage collector, no boxing — unless you explicitly use Box::pin().

Size: The enum's size is the maximum of all its variants. Each .await point creates a new variant. This means:

async fn small() {
    let a: u8 = 0;
    yield_now().await;
    let b: u8 = 0;
    yield_now().await;
}
// Size ≈ max(size_of(u8), size_of(u8)) + discriminant + future sizes
//      ≈ small!

async fn big() {
    let buf: [u8; 1_000_000] = [0; 1_000_000]; // 1MB on the stack!
    some_io().await;
    process(&buf);
}
// Size ≈ 1MB + inner future sizes
// ⚠️ Don't stack-allocate huge buffers in async functions!
// Use Vec<u8> or Box<[u8]> instead.

Drop optimization: When a state machine transitions, it drops values no longer needed. In the example above, fut1 is dropped when we transition from WaitingPage1 to WaitingPage2 — the compiler inserts the drop automatically.

Practical rule: Large stack allocations in async fn blow up the future's size. If you see stack overflows in async code, check for large arrays or deeply nested futures. Use Box::pin() to heap-allocate sub-futures if needed.

Exercise: Predict the State Machine

<details> <summary>🏋️ Exercise (click to expand)</summary>

Challenge: Given this async function, sketch the state machine the compiler generates. How many states (enum variants) does it have? What values are stored in each?

async fn pipeline(url: &str) -> Result<usize, Error> {
    let response = fetch(url).await?;
    let body = response.text().await?;
    let parsed = parse(body).await?;
    Ok(parsed.len())
}

<details> <summary>🔑 Solution</summary>

Four states:

Start — stores url
WaitingFetch — stores url, fetch future
WaitingText — stores response, text() future
WaitingParse — stores body, parse future
Done — returned Ok(parsed.len())

Each .await creates a yield point = a new enum variant. The ? adds early-exit paths but doesn't add extra states — it's just a match on the Poll::Ready value.

</details> </details>

Key Takeaways — The State Machine Reveal

async fn compiles to an enum with one variant per .await point

The future's size = max of all variant sizes — large stack values blow it up

The compiler inserts drops at state transitions automatically

Use Box::pin() or heap allocation when future size becomes a problem

See also: Ch 4 — Pin and Unpin for why the generated enum needs pinning, Ch 6 — Building Futures by Hand to build these state machines yourself