fn get_index(y : usize) -> usize {
        y+1        
    }
    
    fn main() {
        // Initializes an array of 3 elements and sets all to 42
        let a : [u8; 3] = [42; 3];
        // Alternative syntax
        // let a = [42u8, 42u8, 42u8];
        for x in a {
            println!("{x}");
        }
        let y = get_index(a.len());
        // Commenting out the below will cause a panic
        //println!("{}", a[y]);
    }

    fn main() {
        let a = [
            [40, 0], // Define a nested array
            [41, 0],
            [42, 1],
        ];
        for x in a {
            println!("{x:?}");
        }
    }

fn get_tuple() -> (u32, bool) {
    (42, true)        
}

fn main() {
   let t : (u8, bool) = (42, true);
   let u : (u32, bool) = (43, false);
   println!("{}, {}", t.0, t.1);
   println!("{}, {}", u.0, u.1);
   let (num, flag) = get_tuple(); // Tuple destructuring
   println!("{num}, {flag}");
}

fn main() {
    let mut a = 42;
    {
        let b = &a;
        let c = b;
        println!("{} {}", *b, *c); // The compiler automatically dereferences *c
        
        let d = &mut a;
        
        /*
         * Uncommenting the line below would cause the
         * program to not compile, because `b` is used
         * while the mutable reference `d` is live in the current scope
         * 
         * You cannot have a mutable and immutable reference in use in the same scope
         * at the same time!
         */
        // println!("{}", *b);
    }
    let d = &mut a; // Ok: b and c are not in scope
    *d = 43;
}

fn main() {
    let a = [40, 41, 42, 43];
    let b = &a[1..a.len()]; // A slice starting with the second element in the original
    let c = &a[1..]; // Same as the above
    let d = &a[..]; // Same as &a[0..] or &a[0..a.len()]
    println!("{b:?} {c:?} {d:?}");
}

const SECRET_OF_LIFE: u32 = 42;
static GLOBAL_VARIABLE : u32 = 2;
fn main() {
    println!("The secret of life is {}", SECRET_OF_LIFE);
    println!("Value of global variable is {GLOBAL_VARIABLE}")
}

fn main() {
    // &str - string slice (borrowed, immutable, usually a string literal)
    let greeting: &str = "Hello";  // Points to read-only memory

    // String - owned, heap-allocated, growable
    let mut owned = String::from(greeting);  // Copies data to heap
    owned.push_str(", World!");        // Grow the string
    owned.push('!');                   // Append a single character

    // Converting between String and &str
    let slice: &str = &owned;          // String -> &str (free, just a borrow)
    let owned2: String = slice.to_string();  // &str -> String (allocates)
    let owned3: String = String::from(slice); // Same as above

    // String concatenation (note: + consumes the left operand)
    let hello = String::from("Hello");
    let world = String::from(", World!");
    let combined = hello + &world;  // hello is moved (consumed), world is borrowed
    // println!("{hello}");  // Won't compile: hello was moved

    // Use format! to avoid move issues
    let a = String::from("Hello");
    let b = String::from("World");
    let combined = format!("{a}, {b}!");  // Neither a nor b is consumed

    println!("{combined}");
}

fn main() {
    let s = String::from("hello");
    // let c = s[0];  // Won't compile! Rust strings are UTF-8, not byte arrays

    // Safe alternatives:
    let first_char = s.chars().next();           // Option<char>: Some('h')
    let as_bytes = s.as_bytes();                 // &[u8]: raw UTF-8 bytes
    let substring = &s[0..1];                    // &str: "h" (byte range, must be valid UTF-8 boundary)

    println!("First char: {:?}", first_char);
    println!("Bytes: {:?}", &as_bytes[..5]);
}

fn main() {
    struct MyStruct {
        num: u32,
        is_secret_of_life: bool,
    }
    let x = MyStruct {
        num: 42,
        is_secret_of_life: true,
    };
    let y = MyStruct {
        num: x.num,
        is_secret_of_life: x.is_secret_of_life,
    };
    let z = MyStruct { num: x.num, ..x }; // The .. means copy remaining
    println!("{} {} {}", x.num, y.is_secret_of_life, z.num);
}

struct WeightInGrams(u32);
struct WeightInMilligrams(u32);
fn to_weight_in_grams(kilograms: u32) -> WeightInGrams {
    WeightInGrams(kilograms * 1000)
}

fn to_weight_in_milligrams(w : WeightInGrams) -> WeightInMilligrams  {
    WeightInMilligrams(w.0 * 1000)
}

fn main() {
    let x = to_weight_in_grams(42);
    let y = to_weight_in_milligrams(x);
    // let z : WeightInGrams = x;  // Won't compile: x was moved into to_weight_in_milligrams()
    // let a : WeightInGrams = y;   // Won't compile: type mismatch (WeightInMilligrams vs WeightInGrams)
}

#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
struct Point { x: i32, y: i32 }

fn main() {
    let p = Point { x: 1, y: 2 };
    println!("{:?}", p);           // Debug: works because of #[derive(Debug)]
    let p2 = p.clone();           // Clone: works because of #[derive(Clone)]
    assert_eq!(p, p2);            // PartialEq: works because of #[derive(PartialEq)]
}

fn main() {
    let mut v = Vec::new();    // Empty vector, type inferred from usage
    v.push(42);                // Add element to end - Vec<i32>
    v.push(43);                
    
    // Safe iteration (preferred)
    for x in &v {              // Borrow elements, don't consume vector
        println!("{x}");
    }
    
    // Initialization shortcuts
    let mut v2 = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];           // Macro for initialization
    let v3 = vec![0; 10];                       // 10 zeros
    
    // Safe access methods (preferred over indexing)
    match v2.get(0) {
        Some(first) => println!("First: {first}"),
        None => println!("Empty vector"),
    }
    
    // Useful methods
    println!("Length: {}, Capacity: {}", v2.len(), v2.capacity());
    if let Some(last) = v2.pop() {             // Remove and return last element
        println!("Popped: {last}");
    }
    
    // Dangerous: direct indexing (can panic!)
    // println!("{}", v2[100]);  // Would panic at runtime
}

fn main() {
    use std::collections::HashMap;  // Need explicit import, unlike Vec
    let mut map = HashMap::new();       // Allocate an empty HashMap
    map.insert(40, false);  // Type is inferred as int -> bool
    map.insert(41, false);
    map.insert(42, true);
    for (key, value) in map {
        println!("{key} {value}");
    }
    let map = HashMap::from([(40, false), (41, false), (42, true)]);
    if let Some(x) = map.get(&43) {
        println!("43 was mapped to {x:?}");
    } else {
        println!("No mapping was found for 43");
    }
    let x = map.get(&43).or(Some(&false));  // Default value if key isn't found
    println!("{x:?}"); 
}

// C++: && means different things:
int&& rref = 42;           // Rvalue reference — binds to temporaries
void process(Widget&& w);   // Rvalue reference — caller must std::move

// Universal (forwarding) reference — deduced template context:
template<typename T>
void forward(T&& arg) {     // NOT an rvalue ref! Deduced as T& or T&&
    inner(std::forward<T>(arg));  // Perfect forwarding
}

// Rust: && is just boolean AND
let a = true && false; // false

// Rust has NO rvalue references, no universal references, no perfect forwarding.
// Instead:
//   - Move is the default for non-Copy types (no std::move needed)
//   - Generics + trait bounds replace universal references
//   - No temporary-binding distinction — values are values

fn process(w: Widget) { }      // Takes ownership (like C++ value param + implicit move)
fn process_ref(w: &Widget) { } // Borrows immutably (like C++ const T&)
fn process_mut(w: &mut Widget) { } // Borrows mutably (like C++ T&, but exclusive)

// Rust move = memcpy the bytes, mark source as invalid
let s1 = String::from("hello");
let s2 = s1; // Bytes of s1 are copied to s2's stack slot
              // s1 is now invalid — compiler enforces this
// println!("{s1}"); // ❌ Compile error: value used after move

// C++ move = call the move constructor (user-defined!)
std::string s1 = "hello";
std::string s2 = std::move(s1); // Calls string's move ctor
// s1 is now a "valid but unspecified state" zombie
std::cout << s1; // Compiles! Prints... something (empty string, usually)

use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};

// Nested wrapping: Arc<Mutex<Vec<String>>>
let data = Arc::new(Mutex::new(vec!["hello".to_string()]));

// In C++, you'd need explicit unlocking and manual dereferencing at each layer.
// In Rust, the compiler auto-derefs through Arc → Mutex → MutexGuard → Vec:
let guard = data.lock().unwrap(); // Arc auto-derefs to Mutex
let first: &str = &guard[0];      // MutexGuard→Vec (Deref), Vec[0] (Index),
                                   // &String→&str (Deref coercion)
println!("First: {first}");

// Method calls also auto-deref:
let boxed_string = Box::new(String::from("hello"));
println!("Length: {}", boxed_string.len());  // Box→String, then String::len()
// No need for (*boxed_string).len() or boxed_string->len()

fn greet(name: &str) {
    println!("Hello, {name}");
}

fn main() {
    let owned = String::from("Alice");
    let boxed = Box::new(String::from("Bob"));
    let arced = std::sync::Arc::new(String::from("Carol"));

    greet(&owned);  // &String → &str  (1 deref coercion)
    greet(&boxed);  // &Box<String> → &String → &str  (2 deref coercions)
    greet(&arced);  // &Arc<String> → &String → &str  (2 deref coercions)
    greet("Dave");  // &str already — no coercion needed
}
// In C++ you'd need .c_str() or explicit conversions for each case.

// C++: references can't be null, but pointers can, and the distinction is blurry
Widget& ref = *ptr;  // If ptr is null → UB
Widget* opt = nullptr;  // "optional" reference via pointer

// Rust: references are ALWAYS valid — guaranteed by the borrow checker
// No way to create a null or dangling reference in safe code
let r: &i32 = &42; // Always valid

// "Optional reference" is explicit:
let opt: Option<&Widget> = None; // Clear intent, no null pointer
if let Some(w) = opt {
    w.do_something(); // Only reachable when present
}

// C++: a reference is an alias — it can't be rebound
int a = 1, b = 2;
int& r = a;
r = b;  // This ASSIGNS b's value to a — it does NOT rebind r!
// a is now 2, r still refers to a

// Rust: let bindings can shadow, but references follow different rules
let a = 1;
let b = 2;
let r = &a;
// r = &b;   // ❌ Cannot assign to immutable variable
let r = &b;  // ✅ But you can SHADOW r with a new binding
             // The old binding is gone, not reseated

// With mut:
let mut r = &a;
r = &b;      // ✅ r now points to b — this IS rebinding (not assignment through)