Rust traits

What you'll learn: Traits — Rust's answer to interfaces, abstract base classes, and operator overloading. You'll learn how to define traits, implement them for your types, and use dynamic dispatch (dyn Trait) vs static dispatch (generics). For C++ developers: traits replace virtual functions, CRTP, and concepts. For C developers: traits are the structured way Rust does polymorphism.

Rust traits are similar to interfaces in other languages
- Traits define methods that must be defined by types that implement the trait.

fn main() {
    trait Pet {
        fn speak(&self);
    }
    struct Cat;
    struct Dog;
    impl Pet for Cat {
        fn speak(&self) {
            println!("Meow");
        }
    }
    impl Pet for Dog {
        fn speak(&self) {
            println!("Woof!")
        }
    }
    let c = Cat{};
    let d = Dog{};
    c.speak();  // There is no "is a" relationship between Cat and Dog
    d.speak(); // There is no "is a" relationship between Cat and Dog
}

Traits vs C++ Concepts and Interfaces

Traditional C++ Inheritance vs Rust Traits

// C++ - Inheritance-based polymorphism
class Animal {
public:
    virtual void speak() = 0;  // Pure virtual function
    virtual ~Animal() = default;
};

class Cat : public Animal {  // "Cat IS-A Animal"
public:
    void speak() override {
        std::cout << "Meow" << std::endl;
    }
};

void make_sound(Animal* animal) {  // Runtime polymorphism
    animal->speak();  // Virtual function call
}

// Rust - Composition over inheritance with traits
trait Animal {
    fn speak(&self);
}

struct Cat;  // Cat is NOT an Animal, but IMPLEMENTS Animal behavior

impl Animal for Cat {  // "Cat CAN-DO Animal behavior"
    fn speak(&self) {
        println!("Meow");
    }
}

fn make_sound<T: Animal>(animal: &T) {  // Static polymorphism
    animal.speak();  // Direct function call (zero cost)
}

Loading diagram...

Trait Bounds and Generic Constraints

use std::fmt::Display;
use std::ops::Add;

// C++ template equivalent (less constrained)
// template<typename T>
// T add_and_print(T a, T b) {
//     // No guarantee T supports + or printing
//     return a + b;  // Might fail at compile time
// }

// Rust - explicit trait bounds
fn add_and_print<T>(a: T, b: T) -> T 
where 
    T: Display + Add<Output = T> + Copy,
{
    println!("Adding {} + {}", a, b);  // Display trait
    a + b  // Add trait
}

Loading diagram...

C++ Operator Overloading → Rust `std::ops` Traits

In C++, you overload operators by writing free functions or member functions with special names (operator+, operator<<, operator[], etc.). In Rust, every operator maps to a trait in std::ops (or std::fmt for output). You implement the trait instead of writing a magic-named function.

Side-by-side: `+` operator

// C++: operator overloading as a member or free function
struct Vec2 {
    double x, y;
    Vec2 operator+(const Vec2& rhs) const {
        return {x + rhs.x, y + rhs.y};
    }
};

Vec2 a{1.0, 2.0}, b{3.0, 4.0};
Vec2 c = a + b;  // calls a.operator+(b)

use std::ops::Add;

#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
struct Vec2 { x: f64, y: f64 }

impl Add for Vec2 {
    type Output = Vec2;                     // Associated type — the result of +
    fn add(self, rhs: Vec2) -> Vec2 {
        Vec2 { x: self.x + rhs.x, y: self.y + rhs.y }
    }
}

let a = Vec2 { x: 1.0, y: 2.0 };
let b = Vec2 { x: 3.0, y: 4.0 };
let c = a + b;  // calls <Vec2 as Add>::add(a, b)
println!("{c:?}"); // Vec2 { x: 4.0, y: 6.0 }

Key differences from C++

Aspect	C++	Rust
Mechanism	Magic function names (`operator+`)	Implement a trait (`impl Add for T`)
Discovery	Grep for `operator+` or read the header	Look at trait impls — IDE support excellent
Return type	Free choice	Fixed by the `Output` associated type
Receiver	Usually takes `const T&` (borrows)	Takes `self` by value (moves!) by default
Symmetry	Can write `impl operator+(int, Vec2)`	Must add `impl Add<Vec2> for i32` (foreign trait rules apply)
`<<` for printing	`operator<<(ostream&, T)` — overload for any stream	`impl fmt::Display for T` — one canonical `to_string` representation

The `self` by value gotcha

In Rust, Add::add(self, rhs) takes self by value. For Copy types (like Vec2 above, which derives Copy) this is fine — the compiler copies. But for non-Copy types, + consumes the operands:

let s1 = String::from("hello ");
let s2 = String::from("world");
let s3 = s1 + &s2;  // s1 is MOVED into s3!
// println!("{s1}");  // ❌ Compile error: value used after move
println!("{s2}");     // ✅ s2 was only borrowed (&s2)

This is why String + &str works but &str + &str does not — Add is only implemented for String + &str, consuming the left-hand String to reuse its buffer. This has no C++ analogue: std::string::operator+ always creates a new string.

Full mapping: C++ operators → Rust traits

C++ Operator	Rust Trait	Notes
`operator+`	`std::ops::Add`	`Output` associated type
`operator-`	`std::ops::Sub`
`operator*`	`std::ops::Mul`	Not pointer deref — that's `Deref`
`operator/`	`std::ops::Div`
`operator%`	`std::ops::Rem`
`operator-` (unary)	`std::ops::Neg`
`operator!` / `operator~`	`std::ops::Not`	Rust uses `!` for both logical and bitwise NOT (no `~` operator)
`operator&`, `\|`, `^`	`BitAnd`, `BitOr`, `BitXor`
`operator<<`, `>>` (shift)	`Shl`, `Shr`	NOT stream I/O!
`operator+=`	`std::ops::AddAssign`	Takes `&mut self` (not `self`)
`operator[]`	`std::ops::Index` / `IndexMut`	Returns `&Output` / `&mut Output`
`operator()`	`Fn` / `FnMut` / `FnOnce`	Closures implement these; you cannot `impl Fn` directly
`operator==`	`PartialEq` (+ `Eq`)	In `std::cmp`, not `std::ops`
`operator<`	`PartialOrd` (+ `Ord`)	In `std::cmp`
`operator<<` (stream)	`fmt::Display`	`println!("{}", x)`
`operator<<` (debug)	`fmt::Debug`	`println!("{:?}", x)`
`operator bool`	No direct equivalent	Use `impl From<T> for bool` or a named method like `.is_empty()`
`operator T()` (implicit conversion)	No implicit conversions	Use `From`/`Into` traits (explicit)

Guardrails: what Rust prevents

No implicit conversions: C++ operator int() can cause silent, surprising casts. Rust has no implicit conversion operators — use From/Into and call .into() explicitly.
No overloading && / ||: C++ allows it (breaking short-circuit semantics!). Rust does not.
No overloading =: Assignment is always a move or copy, never user-defined. Compound assignment (+=) IS overloadable via AddAssign, etc.
No overloading ,: C++ allows operator,() — one of the most infamous C++ footguns. Rust does not.
No overloading & (address-of): Another C++ footgun (std::addressof exists to work around it). Rust's & always means "borrow."
Coherence rules: You can only implement Add<Foreign> for your own type, or Add<YourType> for a foreign type — never Add<Foreign> for Foreign. This prevents conflicting operator definitions across crates.

Bottom line: In C++, operator overloading is powerful but largely unregulated — you can overload almost anything, including comma and address-of, and implicit conversions can trigger silently. Rust gives you the same expressiveness for arithmetic and comparison operators via traits, but blocks the historically dangerous overloads and forces all conversions to be explicit.

Rust traits

Rust allows implementing a user defined trait on even built-in types like u32 in this example. However, either the trait or the type must belong to the crate

trait IsSecret {
  fn is_secret(&self);
}
// The IsSecret trait belongs to the crate, so we are OK
impl IsSecret for u32 {
  fn is_secret(&self) {
      if *self == 42 {
          println!("Is secret of life");
      }
  }
}

fn main() {
  42u32.is_secret();
  43u32.is_secret();
}

Rust traits

Traits support interface inheritance and default implementations

trait Animal {
  // Default implementation
  fn is_mammal(&self) -> bool {
    true
  }
}
trait Feline : Animal {
  // Default implementation
  fn is_feline(&self) -> bool {
    true
  }
}

struct Cat;
// Use default implementations. Note that all traits for the supertrait must be individually implemented
impl Feline for Cat {}
impl Animal for Cat {}
fn main() {
  let c = Cat{};
  println!("{} {}", c.is_mammal(), c.is_feline());
}

Exercise: Logger trait implementation

🟡 Intermediate

Implement a Log trait with a single method called log() that accepts a u64
- Implement two different loggers SimpleLogger and ComplexLogger that implement the Log trait. One should output "Simple logger" with the u64 and the other should output "Complex logger" with the u64

Solution (click to expand)

trait Log {
    fn log(&self, value: u64);
}

struct SimpleLogger;
struct ComplexLogger;

impl Log for SimpleLogger {
    fn log(&self, value: u64) {
        println!("Simple logger: {value}");
    }
}

impl Log for ComplexLogger {
    fn log(&self, value: u64) {
        println!("Complex logger: {value} (hex: 0x{value:x}, binary: {value:b})");
    }
}

fn main() {
    let simple = SimpleLogger;
    let complex = ComplexLogger;
    simple.log(42);
    complex.log(42);
}
// Output:
// Simple logger: 42
// Complex logger: 42 (hex: 0x2a, binary: 101010)

Rust trait associated types

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Small(u32);
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Big(u32);
trait Double {
    type T;
    fn double(&self) -> Self::T;
}

impl Double for Small {
    type T = Big;
    fn double(&self) -> Self::T {
        Big(self.0 * 2)
    }
}
fn main() {
    let a = Small(42);
    println!("{:?}", a.double());
}

Rust trait impl

impl can be used with traits to accept any type that implements a trait

trait Pet {
    fn speak(&self);
}
struct Dog {}
struct Cat {}
impl Pet for Dog {
    fn speak(&self) {println!("Woof!")}
}
impl Pet for Cat {
    fn speak(&self) {println!("Meow")}
}
fn pet_speak(p: &impl Pet) {
    p.speak();
}
fn main() {
    let c = Cat {};
    let d = Dog {};
    pet_speak(&c);
    pet_speak(&d);
}

Rust trait impl

impl can be also be used be used in a return value

trait Pet {}
struct Dog;
struct Cat;
impl Pet for Cat {}
impl Pet for Dog {}
fn cat_as_pet() -> impl Pet {
    let c = Cat {};
    c
}
fn dog_as_pet() -> impl Pet {
    let d = Dog {};
    d
}
fn main() {
    let p = cat_as_pet();
    let d = dog_as_pet();
}

Rust dynamic traits

Dynamic traits can be used to invoke the trait functionality without knowing the underlying type. This is known as type erasure

trait Pet {
    fn speak(&self);
}
struct Dog {}
struct Cat {x: u32}
impl Pet for Dog {
    fn speak(&self) {println!("Woof!")}
}
impl Pet for Cat {
    fn speak(&self) {println!("Meow")}
}
fn pet_speak(p: &dyn Pet) {
    p.speak();
}
fn main() {
    let c = Cat {x: 42};
    let d = Dog {};
    pet_speak(&c);
    pet_speak(&d);
}

Choosing Between `impl Trait`, `dyn Trait`, and Enums

These three approaches all achieve polymorphism but with different trade-offs:

Approach	Dispatch	Performance	Heterogeneous collections?	When to use
`impl Trait` / generics	Static (monomorphized)	Zero-cost — inlined at compile time	No — each slot has one concrete type	Default choice. Function arguments, return types
`dyn Trait`	Dynamic (vtable)	Small overhead per call (~1 pointer indirection)	Yes — `Vec<Box<dyn Trait>>`	When you need mixed types in a collection, or plugin-style extensibility
`enum`	Match	Zero-cost — known variants at compile time	Yes — but only known variants	When the set of variants is closed and known at compile time

trait Shape {
    fn area(&self) -> f64;
}
struct Circle { radius: f64 }
struct Rect { w: f64, h: f64 }
impl Shape for Circle { fn area(&self) -> f64 { std::f64::consts::PI * self.radius * self.radius } }
impl Shape for Rect   { fn area(&self) -> f64 { self.w * self.h } }

// Static dispatch — compiler generates separate code for each type
fn print_area(s: &impl Shape) { println!("{}", s.area()); }

// Dynamic dispatch — one function, works with any Shape behind a pointer
fn print_area_dyn(s: &dyn Shape) { println!("{}", s.area()); }

// Enum — closed set, no trait needed
enum ShapeEnum { Circle(f64), Rect(f64, f64) }
impl ShapeEnum {
    fn area(&self) -> f64 {
        match self {
            ShapeEnum::Circle(r) => std::f64::consts::PI * r * r,
            ShapeEnum::Rect(w, h) => w * h,
        }
    }
}

For C++ developers: impl Trait is like C++ templates (monomorphized, zero-cost). dyn Trait is like C++ virtual functions (vtable dispatch). Rust enums with match are like std::variant with std::visit — but exhaustive matching is enforced by the compiler.

Rule of thumb: Start with impl Trait (static dispatch). Reach for dyn Trait only when you need heterogeneous collections or can't know the concrete type at compile time. Use enum when you own all the variants.

Rust traits

What you'll learn: Traits — Rust's answer to interfaces, abstract base classes, and operator overloading. You'll learn how to define traits, implement them for your types, and use dynamic dispatch (dyn Trait) vs static dispatch (generics). For C++ developers: traits replace virtual functions, CRTP, and concepts. For C developers: traits are the structured way Rust does polymorphism.

Rust traits are similar to interfaces in other languages
- Traits define methods that must be defined by types that implement the trait.

fn main() {
    trait Pet {
        fn speak(&self);
    }
    struct Cat;
    struct Dog;
    impl Pet for Cat {
        fn speak(&self) {
            println!("Meow");
        }
    }
    impl Pet for Dog {
        fn speak(&self) {
            println!("Woof!")
        }
    }
    let c = Cat{};
    let d = Dog{};
    c.speak();  // There is no "is a" relationship between Cat and Dog
    d.speak(); // There is no "is a" relationship between Cat and Dog
}

Traits vs C++ Concepts and Interfaces

Traditional C++ Inheritance vs Rust Traits

// C++ - Inheritance-based polymorphism
class Animal {
public:
    virtual void speak() = 0;  // Pure virtual function
    virtual ~Animal() = default;
};

class Cat : public Animal {  // "Cat IS-A Animal"
public:
    void speak() override {
        std::cout << "Meow" << std::endl;
    }
};

void make_sound(Animal* animal) {  // Runtime polymorphism
    animal->speak();  // Virtual function call
}

// Rust - Composition over inheritance with traits
trait Animal {
    fn speak(&self);
}

struct Cat;  // Cat is NOT an Animal, but IMPLEMENTS Animal behavior

impl Animal for Cat {  // "Cat CAN-DO Animal behavior"
    fn speak(&self) {
        println!("Meow");
    }
}

fn make_sound<T: Animal>(animal: &T) {  // Static polymorphism
    animal.speak();  // Direct function call (zero cost)
}

Loading diagram...

Trait Bounds and Generic Constraints

use std::fmt::Display;
use std::ops::Add;

// C++ template equivalent (less constrained)
// template<typename T>
// T add_and_print(T a, T b) {
//     // No guarantee T supports + or printing
//     return a + b;  // Might fail at compile time
// }

// Rust - explicit trait bounds
fn add_and_print<T>(a: T, b: T) -> T 
where 
    T: Display + Add<Output = T> + Copy,
{
    println!("Adding {} + {}", a, b);  // Display trait
    a + b  // Add trait
}

Loading diagram...

C++ Operator Overloading → Rust `std::ops` Traits

Side-by-side: `+` operator

// C++: operator overloading as a member or free function
struct Vec2 {
    double x, y;
    Vec2 operator+(const Vec2& rhs) const {
        return {x + rhs.x, y + rhs.y};
    }
};

Vec2 a{1.0, 2.0}, b{3.0, 4.0};
Vec2 c = a + b;  // calls a.operator+(b)

use std::ops::Add;

#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
struct Vec2 { x: f64, y: f64 }

impl Add for Vec2 {
    type Output = Vec2;                     // Associated type — the result of +
    fn add(self, rhs: Vec2) -> Vec2 {
        Vec2 { x: self.x + rhs.x, y: self.y + rhs.y }
    }
}

let a = Vec2 { x: 1.0, y: 2.0 };
let b = Vec2 { x: 3.0, y: 4.0 };
let c = a + b;  // calls <Vec2 as Add>::add(a, b)
println!("{c:?}"); // Vec2 { x: 4.0, y: 6.0 }

Key differences from C++

Aspect	C++	Rust
Mechanism	Magic function names (`operator+`)	Implement a trait (`impl Add for T`)
Discovery	Grep for `operator+` or read the header	Look at trait impls — IDE support excellent
Return type	Free choice	Fixed by the `Output` associated type
Receiver	Usually takes `const T&` (borrows)	Takes `self` by value (moves!) by default
Symmetry	Can write `impl operator+(int, Vec2)`	Must add `impl Add<Vec2> for i32` (foreign trait rules apply)
`<<` for printing	`operator<<(ostream&, T)` — overload for any stream	`impl fmt::Display for T` — one canonical `to_string` representation

The `self` by value gotcha

let s1 = String::from("hello ");
let s2 = String::from("world");
let s3 = s1 + &s2;  // s1 is MOVED into s3!
// println!("{s1}");  // ❌ Compile error: value used after move
println!("{s2}");     // ✅ s2 was only borrowed (&s2)

Full mapping: C++ operators → Rust traits

C++ Operator	Rust Trait	Notes
`operator+`	`std::ops::Add`	`Output` associated type
`operator-`	`std::ops::Sub`
`operator*`	`std::ops::Mul`	Not pointer deref — that's `Deref`
`operator/`	`std::ops::Div`
`operator%`	`std::ops::Rem`
`operator-` (unary)	`std::ops::Neg`
`operator!` / `operator~`	`std::ops::Not`	Rust uses `!` for both logical and bitwise NOT (no `~` operator)
`operator&`, `\|`, `^`	`BitAnd`, `BitOr`, `BitXor`
`operator<<`, `>>` (shift)	`Shl`, `Shr`	NOT stream I/O!
`operator+=`	`std::ops::AddAssign`	Takes `&mut self` (not `self`)
`operator[]`	`std::ops::Index` / `IndexMut`	Returns `&Output` / `&mut Output`
`operator()`	`Fn` / `FnMut` / `FnOnce`	Closures implement these; you cannot `impl Fn` directly
`operator==`	`PartialEq` (+ `Eq`)	In `std::cmp`, not `std::ops`
`operator<`	`PartialOrd` (+ `Ord`)	In `std::cmp`
`operator<<` (stream)	`fmt::Display`	`println!("{}", x)`
`operator<<` (debug)	`fmt::Debug`	`println!("{:?}", x)`
`operator bool`	No direct equivalent	Use `impl From<T> for bool` or a named method like `.is_empty()`
`operator T()` (implicit conversion)	No implicit conversions	Use `From`/`Into` traits (explicit)

Guardrails: what Rust prevents

No implicit conversions: C++ operator int() can cause silent, surprising casts. Rust has no implicit conversion operators — use From/Into and call .into() explicitly.
No overloading && / ||: C++ allows it (breaking short-circuit semantics!). Rust does not.
No overloading =: Assignment is always a move or copy, never user-defined. Compound assignment (+=) IS overloadable via AddAssign, etc.
No overloading ,: C++ allows operator,() — one of the most infamous C++ footguns. Rust does not.
No overloading & (address-of): Another C++ footgun (std::addressof exists to work around it). Rust's & always means "borrow."
Coherence rules: You can only implement Add<Foreign> for your own type, or Add<YourType> for a foreign type — never Add<Foreign> for Foreign. This prevents conflicting operator definitions across crates.

Bottom line: In C++, operator overloading is powerful but largely unregulated — you can overload almost anything, including comma and address-of, and implicit conversions can trigger silently. Rust gives you the same expressiveness for arithmetic and comparison operators via traits, but blocks the historically dangerous overloads and forces all conversions to be explicit.

Rust traits

Rust allows implementing a user defined trait on even built-in types like u32 in this example. However, either the trait or the type must belong to the crate

trait IsSecret {
  fn is_secret(&self);
}
// The IsSecret trait belongs to the crate, so we are OK
impl IsSecret for u32 {
  fn is_secret(&self) {
      if *self == 42 {
          println!("Is secret of life");
      }
  }
}

fn main() {
  42u32.is_secret();
  43u32.is_secret();
}

Rust traits

Traits support interface inheritance and default implementations

trait Animal {
  // Default implementation
  fn is_mammal(&self) -> bool {
    true
  }
}
trait Feline : Animal {
  // Default implementation
  fn is_feline(&self) -> bool {
    true
  }
}

struct Cat;
// Use default implementations. Note that all traits for the supertrait must be individually implemented
impl Feline for Cat {}
impl Animal for Cat {}
fn main() {
  let c = Cat{};
  println!("{} {}", c.is_mammal(), c.is_feline());
}

Exercise: Logger trait implementation

🟡 Intermediate

Implement a Log trait with a single method called log() that accepts a u64
- Implement two different loggers SimpleLogger and ComplexLogger that implement the Log trait. One should output "Simple logger" with the u64 and the other should output "Complex logger" with the u64

Solution (click to expand)

trait Log {
    fn log(&self, value: u64);
}

struct SimpleLogger;
struct ComplexLogger;

impl Log for SimpleLogger {
    fn log(&self, value: u64) {
        println!("Simple logger: {value}");
    }
}

impl Log for ComplexLogger {
    fn log(&self, value: u64) {
        println!("Complex logger: {value} (hex: 0x{value:x}, binary: {value:b})");
    }
}

fn main() {
    let simple = SimpleLogger;
    let complex = ComplexLogger;
    simple.log(42);
    complex.log(42);
}
// Output:
// Simple logger: 42
// Complex logger: 42 (hex: 0x2a, binary: 101010)

Rust trait associated types

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Small(u32);
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Big(u32);
trait Double {
    type T;
    fn double(&self) -> Self::T;
}

impl Double for Small {
    type T = Big;
    fn double(&self) -> Self::T {
        Big(self.0 * 2)
    }
}
fn main() {
    let a = Small(42);
    println!("{:?}", a.double());
}

Rust trait impl

impl can be used with traits to accept any type that implements a trait

trait Pet {
    fn speak(&self);
}
struct Dog {}
struct Cat {}
impl Pet for Dog {
    fn speak(&self) {println!("Woof!")}
}
impl Pet for Cat {
    fn speak(&self) {println!("Meow")}
}
fn pet_speak(p: &impl Pet) {
    p.speak();
}
fn main() {
    let c = Cat {};
    let d = Dog {};
    pet_speak(&c);
    pet_speak(&d);
}

Rust trait impl

impl can be also be used be used in a return value

trait Pet {}
struct Dog;
struct Cat;
impl Pet for Cat {}
impl Pet for Dog {}
fn cat_as_pet() -> impl Pet {
    let c = Cat {};
    c
}
fn dog_as_pet() -> impl Pet {
    let d = Dog {};
    d
}
fn main() {
    let p = cat_as_pet();
    let d = dog_as_pet();
}

Rust dynamic traits

Dynamic traits can be used to invoke the trait functionality without knowing the underlying type. This is known as type erasure

trait Pet {
    fn speak(&self);
}
struct Dog {}
struct Cat {x: u32}
impl Pet for Dog {
    fn speak(&self) {println!("Woof!")}
}
impl Pet for Cat {
    fn speak(&self) {println!("Meow")}
}
fn pet_speak(p: &dyn Pet) {
    p.speak();
}
fn main() {
    let c = Cat {x: 42};
    let d = Dog {};
    pet_speak(&c);
    pet_speak(&d);
}

Choosing Between `impl Trait`, `dyn Trait`, and Enums

These three approaches all achieve polymorphism but with different trade-offs:

Approach	Dispatch	Performance	Heterogeneous collections?	When to use
`impl Trait` / generics	Static (monomorphized)	Zero-cost — inlined at compile time	No — each slot has one concrete type	Default choice. Function arguments, return types
`dyn Trait`	Dynamic (vtable)	Small overhead per call (~1 pointer indirection)	Yes — `Vec<Box<dyn Trait>>`	When you need mixed types in a collection, or plugin-style extensibility
`enum`	Match	Zero-cost — known variants at compile time	Yes — but only known variants	When the set of variants is closed and known at compile time

trait Shape {
    fn area(&self) -> f64;
}
struct Circle { radius: f64 }
struct Rect { w: f64, h: f64 }
impl Shape for Circle { fn area(&self) -> f64 { std::f64::consts::PI * self.radius * self.radius } }
impl Shape for Rect   { fn area(&self) -> f64 { self.w * self.h } }

// Static dispatch — compiler generates separate code for each type
fn print_area(s: &impl Shape) { println!("{}", s.area()); }

// Dynamic dispatch — one function, works with any Shape behind a pointer
fn print_area_dyn(s: &dyn Shape) { println!("{}", s.area()); }

// Enum — closed set, no trait needed
enum ShapeEnum { Circle(f64), Rect(f64, f64) }
impl ShapeEnum {
    fn area(&self) -> f64 {
        match self {
            ShapeEnum::Circle(r) => std::f64::consts::PI * r * r,
            ShapeEnum::Rect(w, h) => w * h,
        }
    }
}

For C++ developers: impl Trait is like C++ templates (monomorphized, zero-cost). dyn Trait is like C++ virtual functions (vtable dispatch). Rust enums with match are like std::variant with std::visit — but exhaustive matching is enforced by the compiler.

Rule of thumb: Start with impl Trait (static dispatch). Reach for dyn Trait only when you need heterogeneous collections or can't know the concrete type at compile time. Use enum when you own all the variants.